Internal Medicine — all flashcards in one place
1000
Total Cards
32
Lectures
Filters
1000 card(s)
h
What do all types of RTA have in common?
What are the four fractions measured in a standard lipid panel?
What is the definition of cor pulmonale?
Define infective endocarditis (IE).
What is the difference between stenosis and regurgitation in terms of hemodynamic consequence and remodeling type?
What are the four types of kidney stones in order of frequency?
What is the paper speed of a standard ECG?
What is the difference between acidosis and acidemia?
What is the vertebral extent of the kidneys in the supine position?
What is the definition of polyuria?
What is the definition of Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)?
What is the difference between cystitis and pyelonephritis?
What is cardiomyopathy?
What is the normal serum potassium level?
What is the vertebral extent of the kidneys in the supine position?
What is hypopituitarism? Define partial vs panhypopituitarism.
What is acute rheumatic fever (ARF)?
What is the definition of Ischaemic Heart Disease (IHD)?
What is acute tubular necrosis (ATN), and what are its three main causes?
What is the normal range of total serum calcium?
What is the single most specific urinary finding confirming glomerular origin of hematuria?
What is the KDIGO 2012 definition of CKD?
What is the pericardium? Describe its layers.
What is ADPKD and why is it clinically important?
What is the definition of Heart Failure?
What is the relative frequency of metastatic vs. primary cardiac tumors?
What is the normal range of plasma sodium?
What is RPGN and what are its defining urinalysis findings?
What is the most common kidney tumor, and what cell does it arise from?
What does the mnemonic PHAROH stand for in nephritic syndrome?
What does each small ECG square represent in time?
Name the 4 main types of cardiomyopathy.
What are the four main mechanisms of polyuria?
How do most UTIs develop?
What is the 5-year mortality of Heart Failure, and how does it compare to cancers?
Why does the right kidney lie about 1 cm lower than the left?
What is the most common cardiac tumor overall?
What is the most common structural cause of hypopituitarism?
What are the two genes mutated in ADPKD, and what proteins do they encode?
Why is LDL-C called the "bad cholesterol"?
What is the histological subtype of most RCCs, and why are the cells described that way?
What percentage of total body potassium is intracellular, and what is its concentration inside cells?
What is rheumatic heart disease (RHD)?
At what percentage of luminal occlusion does CAD become symptomatic?
What is the formula for the urine anion gap (UAG), and what does it measure?
What is the normal volume of pericardial fluid?
What is the critical duration threshold that distinguishes CKD from AKI?
What is the biopsy hallmark of RPGN and what are crescents made of?
How does ATN cause AKI?
What are the normal ABG values?
Can IE affect previously normal valves?
What is the core pathophysiological pathway of cor pulmonale?
How does acute regurgitation differ clinically from chronic regurgitation?
Which kidney stones are radiopaque, and which are radiolucent?
What percentage of AKI cases are pre-renal, intrinsic, and post-renal, respectively?
Why does the right kidney lie about 1 cm lower than the left?
What is the normal plasma osmolality, and what is the formula to calculate it?
Why must serum calcium always be corrected for albumin?
Can a patient with eGFR of 65 mL/min/1.73 m² have CKD?
What is the universal treatment for all types of RPGN?
What does a negative UAG indicate in the setting of metabolic acidosis?
What is ionized (free) calcium, and how does pH affect it?
What is the role of the Na/K+ ATPase pump in potassium balance?
What does the mnemonic PHEAL stand for in nephrotic syndrome?
List the risk factors for RCC.
Among primary cardiac tumors, which type is more common — benign or malignant?
At what rib/intercostal levels are the upper borders of the right and left kidneys?
What is the pathognomonic urinary cast of ATN?
What is the incidence of HF worldwide, and how does it change with age?
What is the best initial test for valvular heart disease?
What is the most common causative organism in all UTIs?
What does each large ECG square represent in time?
What is azotemia?
What are the functional (non-structural) causes of hypopituitarism?
How does plasma sodium differ between primary polydipsia and diabetes insipidus?
What are the four main entities of pericardial disease?
What is the incidence of IE in community-based studies?
At what rib/intercostal levels are the upper borders of the right and left kidneys?
Which ADPKD gene mutation is more common, and which causes more severe disease?
What is the best initial imaging test for nephrolithiasis in a non-pregnant patient?
What does a low serum Na⁺ fundamentally reflect?
What are the two major clinical presentations of CAD?
What age group does ARF usually affect?
State the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation and name the organ that controls each component.
What is the LVEF in DCM? In HCM? In RCM?
What three conditions cause acute cor pulmonale?
What is the optimal LDL-C level for most patients?
What causes subacute cor pulmonale?
What is the equivalently useful form of the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation?
What is the ADH physiology pathway from stimulus to effect?
What does the P wave represent on an ECG?
Which organ is responsible for 80% of daily potassium excretion, and which hormone regulates it?
What is the best initial imaging test for nephrolithiasis in a pregnant patient?
What is the order of structures at the renal hilum, from anterior to posterior?
What is the order of structures at the renal hilum, from anterior to posterior?
What are the clinical features of ACTH deficiency, and how does it differ from primary adrenal insufficiency?
What is the LDL-C target for patients with known vascular disease (CAD, stroke, PAD)?
What are the GFR categories G1 through G5 in KDIGO staging?
What is the key clinical distinction between nephritic and nephrotic syndrome regarding hematuria?
Which organisms cause simple (uncomplicated) cystitis aside from E. coli?
What is the most common cause of hospital admission after age 65?
What are the two clinical phases of ATN, and what electrolyte disturbance is associated with each?
What does a high serum Na⁺ fundamentally reflect?
What does a positive UAG indicate in the setting of metabolic acidosis?
What percentage of IE patients are over 60 years of age?
How are the three types of RPGN distinguished from one another?
What is the role of ECG in valvular heart disease?
What is the classic triad of RCC?
What is the ECG finding in hypocalcemia, and what is the mechanism?
What is the inheritance pattern of ADPKD, and what is the transmission risk to each child?
What are the fixed (non-modifiable) risk factors for CAD?
What is the typical latency between streptococcal pharyngitis and onset of ARF?
What is the most common primary cardiac tumor in adults?
Define dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM).
What is uremia?
What is the classic clinical triad of acute pericarditis?
List the three mechanisms of pH regulation in order of response speed.
What is the mechanism of Type I RPGN and what hypersensitivity type is it?
Why does hypokalemia occur in the polyuric phase of ATN?
What does the renal sinus contain?
What does the QRS complex represent on an ECG?
Summarize the natural history of RHD in four steps.
What is the difference between the V1 and V2 receptors of ADH?
What is eccentric hypertrophy, and in which cardiomyopathy does it occur?
List the 9 major mechanisms that can lead to heart failure.
Which organisms are associated with complicated cystitis?
Are the cysts in ADPKD present at birth?
What is the single most important modifiable risk factor for CAD?
What are the four complications of nephrotic syndrome and their mechanisms?
What does the renal sinus contain?
What are the three albuminuria categories (A1, A2, A3) and their ACR thresholds?
At what LDL-C level is the value considered high?
How does secondary hypothyroidism differ from primary hypothyroidism on lab tests?
What is the UAG mnemonic?
Why is KUB (abdominal X-ray) rarely used for nephrolithiasis?
What are the two routes of potassium excretion other than the kidneys?
What anticoagulation is required after implantation of a bioprosthetic valve (aortic position)?
What are the three types of AKI based on urine output?
In the large British study of IE, what were the underlying cardiac conditions and their frequencies?
What is the ECG finding in hypercalcemia?
What percentage of RCC patients already have metastatic disease at initial presentation?
What is the most common cause of acute pericarditis?
What is the most common primary cardiac tumor in children?
What is the most common cause of chronic cor pulmonale worldwide?
Which ion is the main determinant of ECF volume and EABV?
What anticoagulation is required after implantation of a bioprosthetic valve (mitral position)?
What are the causes of high-output heart failure?
What are the two major categories of hypocalcemia symptoms?
Which organisms cause pyelonephritis?
What is the recommended screening test for early diabetic nephropathy and why?
Why is HDL-C called the "good cholesterol"?
What immune mechanism triggers ARF?
What is magnesium wasting in ATN, and why does it matter clinically?
What are the three immunofluorescence patterns in GN and what does each indicate?
What is the case fatality rate of IE even with treatment? When is it higher?
What are the clinical features of LH/FSH deficiency in women vs men?
Define hypokalemia. What level is considered severe?
What is the role of aquaporin-2 (AQP2) in urine concentration?
What is the most common primary malignant cardiac tumor?
Which two conditions are considered CAD equivalents, and why?
What is the target antigen in anti-GBM disease (Type I RPGN)?
List the four coverings of the kidney from inward to outward.
List the four coverings of the kidney from inward to outward.
Sarcomeres in DCM are added in series or parallel? What about HCM?
What does the T wave represent on an ECG?
What are the two main processes the kidney uses to maintain acid-base balance?
A patient has flank pain and hematuria but no stone is seen on X-ray. What stone types should you suspect?
How does pH change identify the four primary acid-base disorders?
Which drug class classically causes non-oliguric AKI?
When does ADPKD typically present clinically?
What is Dressler's Syndrome?
Which ion is the main determinant of ICF volume?
How does RCC cause a left-sided varicocele?
Name the three categories of chronic cor pulmonale causes with examples.
What are the diagnostic parameters that distinguish ATN from pre-renal AKI?
What is the significance of erectile dysfunction (ED) in the context of IHD?
What is the normal duration of the PR interval?
List the cardiac risk factors for IE.
When should ACR screening begin in Type 1 vs. Type 2 diabetes?
What causes restrictive cardiomyopathy? What does NOT cause it?
What are the five WHO groups of pulmonary hypertension?
Through which system does RCC preferentially spread, and what are the two most common sites of metastasis?
What histological finding is seen in the collagen of connective tissue in ARF?
What HDL-C level is considered low?
Name the primary benign cardiac tumors.
What is the most common identifiable overall cause of DCM?
What is diabetes insipidus?
What happens to K⁺ in acidosis? In alkalosis? Why?
What does anuric AKI most strongly suggest?
What is the classic clinical presentation of ADPKD?
What is uremic pericarditis? What is its treatment?
What enzyme is critical for HCO₃⁻ reabsorption in the proximal tubule, and what happens when it is blocked?
What is Goodpasture's syndrome? Describe the classic presentation.
What is Trousseau's sign, and which disorder does it indicate?
What anticoagulation is required for a mechanical heart valve in the aortic position (low-risk, bileaflet, no additional risk factors)?
What effect does low Na⁺ have on brain cells, and why?
Why are women 10× more likely than men to develop UTIs?
Where are the electron-dense deposits located in each major GN? (5 locations)
Where does a kidney stone cause flank pain versus groin/thigh/testicular pain?
What is the clinical presentation of GH deficiency in children vs adults?
Define hyperkalemia. At what level does it become clinically significant?
What condition results from loss of perirenal fat?
What condition results from loss of perirenal fat?
What are the two general risk factors for all kidney stones?
What are Aschoff nodules? Where are they found?
What prevents medial (inward) displacement of the kidney?
How do you differentiate diabetes insipidus from diabetes mellitus?
What paraneoplastic syndrome does RCC cause by secreting ectopic EPO?
List the major risk factors for UTI.
Name the primary malignant cardiac tumors.
Why is plasmapheresis added specifically in Goodpasture's syndrome?
Is ruling out IHD mandatory in new-onset DCM?
What is the defect in Type II (Proximal) RTA?
What are the key features of HOCM, and what is TRUE vs. FALSE about its diastolic function?
Why does ADPKD cause hypertension?
What effect does high Na⁺ have on brain cells, and why?
List the non-cardiac risk factors for IE.
Which WHO group of pulmonary hypertension is the most common overall?
What is the target INR for a mechanical valve in the mitral position or any mechanical valve with additional risk factors?
What are the two types of glomerular proliferation in nephritic syndrome and which diseases cause each?
What are the four leading causes of CKD in order of global prevalence?
What are the three main mechanisms of hypokalemia?
What is the typical onset of drug-induced ATN, and what characteristic makes it different from ischemic ATN?
What are the three KDIGO criteria for diagnosing AKI (any ONE is sufficient)?
What prevents medial (inward) displacement of the kidney?
Is there strong evidence that pharmacologically raising a low HDL reduces cardiovascular events?
A PR interval greater than 200 ms indicates what?
What are the classic precipitating and relieving factors of angina pectoris?
What is Chvostek's sign? Is it specific for hypocalcemia?
What is the most common autoimmune cause of acute pericarditis?
What does prolactin deficiency cause, and what is its clinical significance in Sheehan syndrome?
What are the clinical effects of acidosis on the cardiovascular and nervous systems?
Describe the step-by-step pathophysiology of IE vegetation formation.
What is Sheehan syndrome? Why is the postpartum pituitary uniquely vulnerable?
What are the four risk factors that warrant CKD screening?
What are renal columns?
How does alkalosis cause hypokalemia?
Name the key antibiotics that cause ATN.
What is the most important bacterial cause of acute pericarditis in developing countries?
What is the most common type of kidney stone overall?
What are the most common primary sources of metastatic cardiac tumors?
What is the ADH level in central DI vs. nephrogenic DI?
What percentage of angina patients present with a typical classical picture?
Which non-ischemic DCM causes are reversible?
What is the plasma HCO₃⁻ level in Type II RTA, and why does it stabilize there?
What is the mechanism of Type II RPGN and what hypersensitivity type is it?
What is the most common extrarenal manifestation of ADPKD?
When do Aschoff nodules appear during the course of rheumatic carditis?
Which WHO group is the main cause of cor pulmonale?
What does the RIFLE classification stand for?
What are the causes of hypocalcemia when PTH is LOW?
What is the normal triglyceride (TG) level?
Why are NOACs contraindicated in mechanical heart valves?
What is the normal duration of the QRS complex?
What is the mandatory first step in evaluating any unexplained hyponatraemia?
Define preload and explain Starling's Law in the context of HF.
Why does pregnancy increase the risk of UTI?
What paraneoplastic syndrome does RCC cause by secreting PTHrP?
What are renal columns?
What is the definition of RPGN and what is the hallmark biopsy finding?
What are the clinical effects of alkalosis on the nervous system and muscles?
What chromosome and gene are associated with RCC?
At what TG level does the risk of acute pancreatitis significantly increase?
How do beta-2 agonists (e.g., albuterol) cause hypokalemia?
What is vesicoureteral reflux and why does it predispose to UTI?
Why does rheumatic heart disease (RHD) develop, and what is its underlying mechanism?
What drugs can cause acute pericarditis?
Define afterload and explain its consequence via Laplace's Law.
Why are PAH vasodilators (ERA, PDE-5 inhibitors) not used in Group 2 PH?
What is the clinical triad of Sheehan syndrome?
A QRS ≥ 120 ms indicates what?
What is "AKI-on-CKD," and why does it matter clinically?
What causes pseudohyponatraemia, and what is the plasma osmolality?
What is the most feared extrarenal complication of ADPKD?
What are the two major causes of Type II RPGN?
Why does Type II RTA cause hypokalemia?
What structure surrounds the apex (renal papilla) of each pyramid?
What are the causes of hypocalcemia when PTH is HIGH?
What are the three types of RPGN classified by immunofluorescence?
What is the typical duration of an anginal episode?
What is the compensation rule for all acid-base disorders?
Where does cardiac myxoma most commonly arise?
What is the most common cause of calcium stones?
Name three non-antibiotic drugs that cause ATN.
What framework is used to diagnose ARF, and what does it require?
Why are bacteria within IE vegetations protected from antibiotics and host defences?
What is the most common cause of death in adult CKD patients on dialysis?
What is the most common viral cause of DCM/myocarditis?
What is the most common form of diabetes insipidus?
What structure surrounds the apex (renal papilla) of each pyramid?
Are elevated TG levels strongly linked to cardiovascular outcomes in the moderate range?
[PREVIOUS_YEAR] What is NOT a cause of acute pericarditis? (3 common distractors)
Why is creatinine considered a good surrogate marker for GFR?
List the major Jones criteria.
How does pancreatitis cause hypocalcemia?
How does hyperparathyroidism cause calcium stones?
What is the most common cause of death in children on dialysis and in post-transplant patients?
What is the primary driver of pulmonary hypertension in chronic lung disease?
What is the most common GN worldwide, and what is its pathognomonic IF finding?
Which valve is most commonly affected in rheumatic heart disease, and why?
What are the features of Prinzmetal's (Variant) Angina?
Name three reversible causes of hypokalemia.
How fast is respiratory compensation for metabolic disorders? How fast is renal compensation for respiratory disorders?
How do major calyces and the renal pelvis form?
List all the major extrarenal manifestations of ADPKD.
What is the mechanism of aminoglycoside nephrotoxicity?
What causes hyper-osmolar hyponatraemia, and what is the plasma osmolality?
How do you calculate heart rate on a regular rhythm ECG?
What are the three major neurohormonal systems activated in HF and their long-term consequences?
What are the classic symptoms of cystitis?
What is the classic triad of clinical features of left atrial myxoma?
What are the key features of lymphocytic hypophysitis?
Which cardiac lesions carry the highest IE risk? Which carry minimal risk?
What is the difference between sporadic and inherited RCC in terms of tumor pattern and patient profile?
How do major calyces and the renal pelvis form?
What is Takotsubo (stress/apical ballooning) cardiomyopathy?
Why is the urine pH low in Type II RTA despite a systemic metabolic acidosis?
Who does central DI most commonly affect?
Which is the most common cause of RPGN overall?
State Winter's Formula and explain how to use it.
List the main causes of central DI.
What is the key determinant of IE risk in a cardiac lesion?
Define hyperlipidemia.
What class of lupus nephritis can progress to RPGN, and what is its IF pattern?
At what vertebral level does the renal artery arise from the aorta?
Which type of RTA causes calcium stones, and why?
What is the antibacterial mechanism of aminoglycosides, and what do they NOT inhibit?
What is Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) disease, and what is its inheritance pattern?
What is the treatment of Prinzmetal's Angina, and what must be avoided?
Describe the two stages of RV response to chronic pressure overload.
Why does hypomagnesemia cause hypokalemia, and what is the clinical implication?
At what vertebral level does the renal artery arise from the aorta?
List the minor Jones criteria.
List the six major functions of the kidney.
How do you calculate heart rate on an irregular rhythm ECG?
How does severe hypomagnesemia cause hypocalcemia?
In which ADPKD patients should you screen for intracranial aneurysms, and with what test?
Why is urea (BUN) an unreliable marker of GFR on its own?
What does urine osmolality less than 100 mOsm/kg indicate in a hyponatraemic patient?
Does Type II RTA cause kidney stones?
What is BNP/ANP, and what are the diagnostic NT-proBNP thresholds for HF?
What mnemonic covers the main causes of acute pericarditis?
List the frequency of valve involvement in rheumatic heart disease from most to least common.
What is Kallmann syndrome? What is its diagnostic hallmark?
Why do myxoma symptoms change with body position?
What symptoms distinguish pyelonephritis from cystitis?
What is peripartum cardiomyopathy?
What is the critical timing distinction between IgA nephropathy and PSGN?
What are the three main tumors associated with VHL disease?
What is Angina with Normal Coronary Angiography (ANOCA), and who is most affected?
What lifestyle factors commonly contribute to hyperlipidemia?
How do you confirm the defect in Kallmann syndrome is hypothalamic rather than pituitary?
What is a "tumor plop" and what causes it?
What are the characteristics of chest pain in acute pericarditis?
Which chemotherapy class causes DCM, and what are the two main agents?
What is Fanconi syndrome?
What is Type III RPGN? Why is it called "pauci-immune"?
What is the first-line diagnostic test for ADPKD?
What counts as supporting evidence of preceding streptococcal infection?
What is the treatment approach for hypocalcemia?
What is the D-sign on echocardiography and what causes it?
How does fat malabsorption (e.g., Crohn's disease, gastric bypass) cause calcium oxalate stones?
What is the classic echocardiographic hallmark of rheumatic mitral stenosis?
Is volume status related to ejection fraction?
What does urine osmolality greater than 100 mOsm/kg indicate in a hyponatraemic patient?
What is the pathognomonic urinary finding for upper tract (renal) involvement?
What are the ototoxic effects of aminoglycosides?
What is the normal heart rate range?
What are the four hits in IgA nephropathy pathogenesis?
What percentage of cardiac output do the renal arteries together receive?
What is the classic EKG finding of hypokalemia?
What extracardiac consequences can occur in IE and what causes them?
What percentage of total body EPO does the kidney produce, and which cells produce it?
What percentage of cardiac output do the renal arteries together receive?
Why does the BUN:creatinine ratio rise above 20:1 specifically in pre-renal AKI?
Describe the triphasic response of central DI after head trauma.
What are the compensation formulas for respiratory acidosis (acute and chronic)?
How is VHL disease diagnosed, and what surveillance is recommended?
What are the compensation formulas for respiratory alkalosis (acute and chronic)?
What are the three volume status categories of true hypo-osmolar hyponatraemia?
What are the characteristic features of contrast-induced ATN?
What is myocardial remodeling and what drives it?
Name six important secondary causes of hyperlipidemia.
What is unique about the course of the right renal artery relative to the IVC?
What mediator causes carcinoid heart disease, and which valves are affected?
Is the left ventricle affected structurally in classic cor pulmonale?
Why does transmission through His-Purkinje fibers produce a narrow QRS?
When is evidence of preceding GAS infection especially important?
What is the most common cause of hypercalcemia in outpatients?
How is fertility restored in Kallmann syndrome? Why is testosterone alone insufficient?
How is UTI diagnosed?
Name two other causes of high urinary oxalate besides fat malabsorption.
Name the most tested drug causes of Type II RTA (with or without Fanconi syndrome).
What is nephrogenic DI and how does it differ mechanistically from central DI?
Why does the BUN:creatinine ratio remain closer to normal (~10–20:1) in intrinsic AKI (ATN)?
What is the classic tetrad of HSP (IgA Vasculitis) and what does biopsy show?
What does ANCA stand for, and what are the two types and their associations?
What causes Chagas cardiomyopathy, and where is it most prevalent?
What are the ultrasound diagnostic criteria for ADPKD in a PKD1 carrier aged 15–39?
Why does sitting up and leaning forward relieve the pain of acute pericarditis?
What does a resting ECG show in stable angina between attacks?
What cardiac murmurs can a left atrial myxoma mimic on auscultation?
What enzyme does the kidney use to activate vitamin D, and where does activation occur?
What proportion of IE cases are caused by streptococci or staphylococci?
What are U waves, and in which condition are they classically seen?
What is unique about the course of the right renal artery relative to the IVC?
What is the compensation formula for metabolic alkalosis?
What are the ultrasound diagnostic criteria for ADPKD in a patient aged 40–59?
What constitutes a positive exercise ECG (treadmill test)?
Which organism is the most common overall cause of IE globally?
Why is hyponatremia a poor prognostic indicator in HF?
What are the key urinalysis findings in UTI?
What is the gold standard for diagnosing myocarditis?
What is the most important drug cause of nephrogenic DI?
What are the three other developmental syndromes associated with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism?
What is the pericardial friction rub? How is it best heard?
What are the classic features of Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (GPA)?
What is the most common cause of hypercalcemia in hospitalized patients?
Why does carcinoid heart disease affect only right-sided valves?
Why does hypokalemia increase sensitivity to digoxin toxicity?
List the arterial branching sequence from the renal artery to the glomerulus.
Why is FENa < 1% in contrast-induced ATN, even though it is intrinsic AKI?
What is the imaging modality of choice to diagnose RCC?
In hypovolaemic hyponatraemia from extra-renal causes (vomiting, diarrhoea), what is the expected urine Na⁺?
What are the PSGN biopsy findings on LM, IF, and EM?
List the arterial branching sequence from the renal artery to the glomerulus.
How does a high-sodium diet increase the risk of calcium stones?
How does multiple myeloma cause Type II RTA?
What three variables does the CKD-EPI equation use to estimate GFR?
Why do myxomas cause embolic events?
Which secondary cause primarily raises TG?
Can ARF be diagnosed without evidence of preceding GAS infection?
What is the role of the AV node in cardiac conduction?
What is the mechanism of hypotension in massive pulmonary embolism?
How many nephrons does each kidney contain, and can they regenerate?
How do acetazolamide and topiramate cause Type II RTA?
What is the classic presentation of a calcium stone patient?
How many segmental arteries arise from each renal artery, and how are they distributed relative to the renal pelvis?
What are the virulence mechanisms of S. aureus in IE?
What are the three mechanisms by which malignancy causes hypercalcemia?
When can carcinoid heart disease cause LEFT-sided valve lesions?
What is the normal ejection fraction range? Define HFrEF, HFmrEF, and HFpEF by EF.
What is the Bernheim effect in massive PE?
How does trimethoprim cause a rise in serum creatinine without true AKI?
In PSGN, what complement pattern is expected and why is it diagnostically important?
What type of stenosis does the exercise stress test detect, and what is its limitation?
In hypovolaemic hyponatraemia from renal causes (diuretics, Addison's disease), what is the expected urine Na⁺?
What are the three pillars of RCC treatment?
What is the definition of tachyarrhythmia?
How can ARF be diagnosed in a patient with established RHD or prior ARF?
What does leukocyte esterase on urinalysis indicate?
Which secondary cause primarily raises LDL and should prompt a TSH check?
What are the Lake Louise Criteria used for?
Why does myxoma cause constitutional symptoms such as fever and raised ESR?
Is serum albumin a variable in the CKD-EPI equation?
How do you recognize a mixed acid-base disorder?
Why is amiloride specifically used in lithium-induced nephrogenic DI?
What are the two types of nephrons and their proportions?
How many segmental arteries arise from each renal artery, and how are they distributed relative to the renal pelvis?
What lab pattern confirms hypopituitarism vs primary gland failure?
What is the ascending pattern of muscle weakness in both hypo- and hyperkalemia?
What is tolvaptan, and what is its mechanism of action in ADPKD?
[PREVIOUS_YEAR] What finding is NOT expected in uncomplicated acute pericarditis? (Hope 2024)
How does Microscopic Polyangiitis (MPA) differ from GPA?
What pharmacologic agents are used for nuclear stress testing, and what is their contraindication?
What is the "full house" IF pattern and what disease is it pathognomonic for?
What drug shares the same mechanism as trimethoprim in falsely elevating serum creatinine?
Why is the left kidney preferred for live-donor nephrectomy?
How does urine K+ help differentiate the cause of hypokalemia?
Why is the left kidney preferred for live-donor nephrectomy?
What is the effect of serotonin on cardiac valves in carcinoid disease?
What are the symptoms of hypercalcemia? Give the mnemonic.
What is the acute treatment for a calcium stone ≤ 5 mm?
What is the treatment for Type II RTA?
What is the classic triad of EGPA (Churg-Strauss syndrome)?
What are the additional clinical features of acute pericarditis?
What dynamic test is the gold standard for combined GH and ACTH reserve assessment?
List the acquired causes of nephrogenic DI.
What are the properties of an ideal GFR tracer (e.g., inulin)?
What is respiratory alkalosis and what always causes it?
What is the first-line investigation for a suspected cardiac myxoma?
What are the 3 key echo findings in DCM?
What screen should be completed before starting lifelong statin therapy?
What do nitrites on urinalysis indicate?
Does subclinical carditis (seen only on echocardiography, no audible murmur) count toward the diagnosis?
List the three mechanisms of tachyarrhythmias.
Why should IV fluids be avoided in massive PE management?
What is tolvaptan's role in ADPKD treatment?
What is the problem in HFrEF vs. HFpEF?
Why is chemotherapy not used in RCC?
What are the sources of S. aureus bacteraemia leading to IE?
Why does creatinine clearance overestimate true GFR?
What are the five diagnostic criteria for SIADH?
What is the most classic paraneoplastic cause of SIADH?
What are the clinical features of left-sided vs. right-sided HF?
What does a narrow QRS + regular rhythm suggest in a tachycardia?
List the main causes of respiratory alkalosis.
Do most patients with hyperlipidemia have physical signs?
Why is creatinine an insensitive early marker of CKD?
A patient has pauci-immune crescentic GN. What serological test must be ordered, and what does each result suggest?
What is the treatment of ATN, and which three treatments are NOT helpful?
What does echocardiography show in left atrial myxoma?
What are the 4 pillars of GDMT (guideline-directed medical therapy) in DCM?
What is the treatment of massive PE with haemodynamic instability?
In IVDU patients with IE, which valve does S. aureus preferentially affect and why?
Who is tolvaptan indicated for in ADPKD?
Why does hypercalcemia cause polyuria?
What are the 4 classic ECG stages of acute pericarditis?
A 14-year-old boy presents with fever, migratory polyarthritis, and a new systolic murmur. What provides the diagnostic framework for confirming ARF?
A patient with hypokalemia has urine K+ > 20 mmol/L and metabolic acidosis. What are the likely causes?
What are the two most common causes of aortic stenosis and how do you differentiate them by patient age?
What is "wire looping" on light microscopy and in which disease is it seen?
What is the critical rule for hormone replacement in panhypopituitarism, and what is the reason?
Which organisms produce a nitrite-negative urinalysis despite causing active UTI?
Which two veins drain into the left renal vein, and from what direction?
What is the contraindication for dobutamine stress echocardiography?
What are the two hereditary forms of nephrogenic DI?
What pathway does nivolumab block, and what is the result?
Which two veins drain into the left renal vein, and from what direction?
What is the defect in Type I (Distal) RTA?
What antispasmodic drugs are used to help pass larger calcium stones, and what are their mechanisms?
List the major causes of pre-renal AKI.
Why is rituximab an option in Type III RPGN (ANCA-associated vasculitis)?
How does hypercalcemia cause nephrogenic DI?
What is the role of cardiac MRI in evaluating cardiac tumors?
What is the pathophysiology of aortic stenosis?
What pathway does ipilimumab block?
What is the gold standard for visualizing coronary anatomy?
In lupus nephritis, how do you distinguish Class IV (DPGN) from Class V (Membranous)?
What are the clinical features of respiratory alkalosis?
What is acute interstitial nephritis (AIN)?
What are the three classic physical signs of severe/familial hyperlipidemia?
What are the four NYHA functional classes of heart failure?
What colony count on urine culture is considered significant bacteriuria?
How does sarcoidosis cause hypercalcemia?
What is the mortality rate of massive PE with haemodynamic instability?
What does a narrow QRS + irregular rhythm suggest in a tachycardia?
What plasma HCO₃⁻ level is characteristic of Type I (Distal) RTA?
List four drug causes of SIADH.
What is tolvaptan's key contraindication?
What is the gold standard for true GFR measurement?
A patient with hypokalemia has urine K+ > 20 mmol/L and metabolic alkalosis. What does this suggest?
What is the typical urinalysis pattern in pre-renal AKI?
What is lithotripsy, and when is it used for calcium stones?
What are the classic pulmonary features of right-sided S. aureus IE in IVDU patients?
What is Spodick's Sign?
When is an ICD indicated in DCM?
What structure does the right renal vein pass behind?
What is the correct sequence of hormone replacement in panhypopituitarism?
What structure does the right renal vein pass behind?
What is the most common major manifestation of ARF, and in what percentage of patients does it occur?
Which antibiotic class is preferred for treating cyst infections in ADPKD, and why?
What defines uncomplicated cystitis?
What does a wide QRS + regular rhythm suggest in a tachycardia?
Describe the pattern of arthritis in ARF.
Why is calcium restriction NOT recommended for recurrent calcium oxalate stones?
Where does renal lymph drain to?
Why is the urine pH high (alkaline) in Type I RTA?
What is the treatment for hypokalemia with K+ 3.0–3.5 mEq/L?
Describe the common pathway of CKD progression regardless of initial cause.
Summarize the three RPGN types in one anchor per type.
What hemodynamic gradient is seen in aortic stenosis? Give an example.
What is the target antigen in Goodpasture syndrome, and why does it cause both renal and pulmonary disease?
Where does renal lymph drain to?
Which coronary artery territory corresponds to each ECG lead group?
By what mechanism do NSAIDs cause pre-renal AKI?
What is the most common type of bladder cancer, and what other name is it known by?
What happens physiologically at high altitude and how does the body acclimatize?
Which streptococcal species cause classic subacute IE? What is their source and which valve is typically affected?
What are the four ACC/AHA stages of HF?
How do you differentiate the ST elevation of acute pericarditis from STEMI on ECG?
What is milk-alkali syndrome?
What is the role of PET-CT in cardiac tumor evaluation?
When is CRT (cardiac resynchronization therapy / biventricular pacemaker) indicated?
In what settings can hypopituitarism present acutely as an emergency?
What is the most common cause of AIN, and what percentage of cases does it account for?
Why does normal saline worsen hyponatraemia in SIADH?
Where is the tendinous xanthoma most commonly found?
What are the WHO functional classes for pulmonary hypertension?
What are the three hallmark symptoms of diabetes insipidus in adults?
Define hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM).
A patient with PH is comfortable at rest but becomes symptomatic when climbing several flights of stairs. What is her WHO functional class?
Besides the bladder, where else can TCC arise in the urinary tract?
What type of crescents are seen in Anti-GBM disease vs ANCA vasculitis, and why?
Why do ACE inhibitors slow CKD progression even in normotensive patients?
Name five drug classes that cause AIN.
What is carditis in ARF, and how common is it?
What is Empty Sella Syndrome? Is the sella actually empty?
Which physical sign is highly specific for familial hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa)?
How is Type I RTA diagnosed?
Why is the urine colorless in diabetes insipidus?
Which organism causing IE is strongly associated with colorectal cancer? What must be done?
What is the role of acetazolamide in high altitude acclimatization?
What is the common mechanism of hypervolaemic hyponatraemia in heart failure, cirrhosis, and nephrotic syndrome?
At which spinal cord levels do renal afferent (pain) fibers enter?
When is IV KCl indicated for hypokalemia?
Name the dietary modifications for prevention of recurrent calcium stones.
In which leads does ST elevation appear in acute pericarditis? In which lead does ST depression appear?
What are the causes of acute (de novo) heart failure?
What is the first and most important test to order after confirming hypercalcemia?
What does a wide QRS + irregular rhythm suggest in a tachycardia?
Summarise the imaging approach to a suspected cardiac mass.
What defines complicated cystitis?
What are the three echocardiographic criteria for SEVERE aortic stenosis?
By what mechanism do ACE inhibitors/ARBs cause pre-renal AKI?
What are the anti-anginal drug classes and their mechanisms in stable angina?
At which spinal cord levels do renal afferent (pain) fibers enter?
A 27-year-old man has bilateral renal cysts on ultrasound, a positive family history of kidney disease, and normal renal function. What is the diagnosis?
Describe the classic symptomatic triad of severe aortic stenosis with approximate survival for each without valve replacement.
What landmark trial demonstrated the renoprotective benefit of ACE inhibitors in diabetic nephropathy?
In primary hyperparathyroidism, what is the pattern of Ca, PTH, and PO₄?
Why does Type I RTA cause calcium phosphate kidney stones?
What are the investigation findings in acute pericarditis?
What are the LDL-C targets for different cardiovascular risk categories?
How does ARPKD differ from ADPKD in terms of onset and presentation?
Why are NSAIDs and ACE inhibitors/ARBs especially risky together, or in a volume-depleted patient?
How do thiazide diuretics prevent recurrent calcium stones?
What is concentric hypertrophy? In which cardiomyopathy does it occur?
What is the treatment of cardiac myxoma?
What is the length of the ureter, and where does it begin?
What distinguishes primary from secondary empty sella syndrome?
What is respiratory acidosis and what always causes it?
When does hypernatremia develop in a patient with DI?
What is the clinical profile of Enterococcal IE?
In hypervolaemic hyponatraemia (heart failure, cirrhosis), what is the expected urine Na⁺ and why?
What is the most common murmur in acute rheumatic carditis?
At what age is corneal arcus considered clinically significant?
Why should you never give verapamil or diltiazem for wide complex tachycardia?
What is the prognostic significance of WHO functional class in PAH?
What is the first-line treatment for uncomplicated cystitis?
What is the most common precipitant of acute decompensation of chronic HF?
What is the most important risk factor for TCC, and why?
What is the ANCA pattern and target antibody for GPA (Wegener's), MPA, and EGPA?
What is the length of the ureter, and where does it begin?
What are the maximum safe IV KCl infusion rates?
What infections cause AIN, and what percentage of cases do they account for?
What is acquired cystic kidney disease, and who develops it?
What additional symptoms do children with DI present with beyond the adult symptoms?
How do NSAIDs precipitate acute decompensation of HF?
What are the key distinguishing features of AKI vs. CKD on investigation?
What is the hallmark histological finding of HCM?
After confirming primary hyperparathyroidism biochemically, what is the next investigation?
What is myopericarditis? What is its key laboratory marker?
Why is the IF of ANCA-associated GN negative (pauci-immune), and what does this mean clinically?
What are the causes of euvolaemic hyponatraemia beyond SIADH?
How does potassium citrate prevent recurrent calcium stones?
How much does reducing LDL-C by 1 mmol/L reduce cardiovascular disease risk?
Which chemotherapy drug is a risk factor for TCC, and what is its toxic metabolite?
What is the most consistent physical sign of pulmonary hypertension?
What is the key distinguishing feature of cardiorenal/hepatorenal syndrome compared to typical hypovolemic pre-renal AKI?
What is the Carey Coombs murmur, and what causes it?
What are the three mechanisms that cause wide QRS tachycardia?
List the main causes of respiratory acidosis by category.
What clinical triad should immediately suggest familial hypercholesterolemia?
Name the three classic sites of ureteric constriction where stones commonly impact.
By how much does 10 mEq of KCl raise the serum K+ level?
What are the radiologic grades of empty sella on MRI?
Why does exertional syncope occur in aortic stenosis?
What systemic diseases cause AIN, and what percentage of cases do they account for?
Why should nitrofurantoin be avoided in patients with CKD?
Why does Type I RTA cause rickets and osteoporosis?
Name the three classic sites of ureteric constriction where stones commonly impact.
What is Carney complex and why is it relevant to myxoma?
What is the HACEK group? Name each organism.
How do simple renal cysts differ from ADPKD cysts?
What autoimmune disease is most classically associated with Type I (Distal) RTA?
What symptomatic presentations can empty sella cause?
What is the first step in diagnosing polyuria?
List the key physical signs of pulmonary hypertension.
What are the two complications of coronary stents, and how do they differ?
What is CO₂ narcosis and when does it occur?
In psychogenic polydipsia, what is the urine osmolality and why?
What is the first-line treatment for complicated cystitis or pyelonephritis?
Is anasarca a precipitant or consequence of decompensated HF?
What is the classic clinical triad of drug-induced AIN?
What is the inheritance pattern of HCM? How common is familial vs sporadic?
What are struvite stones composed of?
A patient has elevated creatinine and hyponatremia with no other clues. What is the most likely diagnosis?
What is the function of the oblique intramural course of the ureter through the bladder wall?
What is phenacetin, and why is it a risk factor for TCC?
What are the key microbiological features of HACEK group IE?
What is the first-line treatment for acute pericarditis?
What is the Alport syndrome triad, and what is the pathognomonic EM finding?
In CKD, which conditions cause large kidneys on ultrasound rather than the typical small kidneys?
What are the indications for parathyroidectomy in asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism?
What is papillary fibroelastoma and where does it arise?
Describe the murmur of aortic stenosis.
What is the function of the oblique intramural course of the ureter through the bladder wall?
What are the three main mechanisms of hyperkalemia?
In what percentage of ARF cases does aortic regurgitation occur? Which valves are rarely involved?
What are the four types of familial dyslipidemias and their common names?
What are the common causes of sinus tachycardia?
What are the clinical features of pericarditis in ARF?
What type of anemia does CKD cause, and what is the primary mechanism?
What is the role of neck ultrasound in primary hyperparathyroidism?
What is the classic symptom progression in left HF?
Why do COPD patients have a chronically elevated HCO₃⁻?
What are the two categories of renal cysts based on imaging characteristics?
How does amphotericin B cause Type I RTA?
How do initial labs help differentiate DI from primary polydipsia?
When can pyelonephritis be treated as an outpatient?
What is the inheritance pattern of Type I dyslipidemia?
What is the normal capacity of an empty urinary bladder?
What is the clinical risk of papillary fibroelastoma?
In beer potomania (special diet), what is the urine osmolality and why is there hyponatraemia despite low ADH?
How do you confirm CSF rhinorrhea in a patient with empty sella?
What is the treatment principle for sinus tachycardia?
What are the urinalysis findings in AIN?
What confirms the diagnosis of pre-renal AKI over other causes?
How does acidosis cause hyperkalemia?
Name two occupational exposures associated with TCC.
What is Carvallo's sign and what does it indicate?
What is the inheritance and genetic defect in Alport syndrome?
What always causes struvite stones?
Which sarcomere protein gene is most commonly TESTED in HCM exams?
What is the normal capacity of an empty urinary bladder?
What organism causes Q fever endocarditis? What is the exposure history? Which valve? What else can it cause?
What is the standard DAPT regimen after coronary stent implantation?
What is the role of colchicine in acute pericarditis? What is the duration of treatment?
What is the character of the apex beat in aortic stenosis?
What is the treatment of severe hypercalcemia (Ca > 14 mg/dL)?
What is the COURAGE Trial finding?
What is the classic presentation of TCC, and what does the urine analysis show?
What is cardiac cachexia and when does it appear in HF?
What is the water deprivation test and what does it measure?
What mandatory workup is required for every patient diagnosed with empty sella?
Which sarcomere protein gene is most frequently MUTATED in HCM overall?
[PREVIOUS_YEAR] Why are corticosteroids NOT first-line for acute pericarditis? (Hope 2024)
What does the S2 sound like in severe aortic stenosis, and why?
How do non-selective beta-blockers cause hyperkalemia?
What is the trigone of the bladder, and how does its mucosa differ from the rest of the bladder?
What is the rate of fall that determines whether hyponatraemia is dangerous to the brain?
What is the classic exam vignette for Type I RTA?
What is the trigone of the bladder, and how does its mucosa differ from the rest of the bladder?
What genetic syndrome is strongly associated with cardiac rhabdomyoma?
What is the most common cause of intrinsic renal AKI?
What causes cardiac failure in acute rheumatic carditis?
Why may signs of RV enlargement be masked in COPD patients?
What is the target Hgb range when treating CKD anemia with ESAs?
What are the imaging features of a simple renal cyst?
What is multifocal atrial tachycardia (MAT)?
What is the mechanism of Type I dyslipidemia?
How do urease-positive bacteria create the conditions for struvite stone formation?
What distinguishes MPGN Type I from Type II on IF and EM?
How do you distinguish AIN from pyelonephritis when both present with WBC casts?
What is the anion gap and what is its normal value?
What is antimicrobial de-escalation and when is it applied in UTI/urosepsis?
How is Coxiella burnetii IE diagnosed serologically?
What are the graft options in CABG, and which is preferred?
What is the core management principle for empty sella, and when is surgery needed?
Why is LVEF normal in HCM despite causing heart failure symptoms?
What is the treatment for Type I RTA?
What is the natural history of rhabdomyomas in children?
What are the imaging features of a complex renal cyst?
When are antibiotics indicated in acute pericarditis?
What are the two broad categories of ATN causes?
What is C3 Nephritic Factor (C3NeF) and in which disease is it found?
Why is PTH contraindicated in hypercalcemia?
At what age is the bladder found entirely in the pelvis?
What is a staghorn calculus?
What is the test of choice for diagnosing bladder cancer?
What is the S3 gallop and what does it signify?
What is the most common cause of paroxysmal SVT?
How does digoxin cause hyperkalemia?
What is chronic pyelonephritis?
What causes the bleeding tendency in uremia?
What is the exposure history and typical valve involved in Brucella endocarditis?
What is the treatment of AIN?
At what serum Na⁺ level do symptoms typically begin in acute hyponatraemia?
What are the signs of right-sided heart failure in cor pulmonale?
What TG level is seen in Type I dyslipidemia, and what is the characteristic plasma appearance?
What conduction defect can occur in ARF, and what symptom may it cause?
At what age is the bladder found entirely in the pelvis?
What is the difference between HAGMA and NAGMA?
After confirming DI by water deprivation, how is the desmopressin test used?
What is pulsus parvus et tardus?
What is the length of the male urethra, and how many parts does it have?
What is SIADH and what are its diagnostic criteria (Schwartz-Bartter)?
What is the length of the male urethra, and how many parts does it have?
How does a hyperosmolar state (e.g., HHS or DKA) cause hyperkalemia?
What is SAM in the context of HCM?
When does Sydenham chorea appear relative to the initial ARF episode?
What is lipomatous hypertrophy of the interatrial septum?
What are the main causes of chronic pyelonephritis?
What is the primary complication of Type I dyslipidemia?
What cardiovascular complication is the most common cause of death in adult CKD?
Why is uremic pericarditis treated differently from other forms?
How are UA, NSTEMI, and STEMI differentiated?
In whom does fungal IE (Candida, Aspergillus) occur?
What does MUDPILES stand for?
Why does calcitonin develop tachyphylaxis in 24–48 hours?
What urine sediment finding is pathognomonic of ATN?
How do brain cells adapt to chronic hyponatraemia?
What are the urine osmolality results after water deprivation and after desmopressin for each diagnosis?
Why do struvite stones always require surgery?
Why must vasodilators be used with extreme caution in severe aortic stenosis?
What is TURBT, and when is it used?
Does cardiac tamponade cause pulmonary oedema?
What is the defining clinical feature of Type IV RTA that distinguishes it from Types I and II?
What is the "tram track" appearance on LM and in which GN is it seen?
What is the S4 gallop and what does it signify?
What is chronic interstitial nephritis (CIN), and what is its histological hallmark?
What is the mechanism of AVNRT?
What is the management of a simple renal cyst?
Which part of the male urethra is the widest and most dilatable, and which is the narrowest?
Which three diseases cause hypocomplementemia (↓ C3) and how do they differ?
What is Osmotic Demyelination Syndrome (ODS), and what causes it?
What causes cardiogenic pulmonary oedema?
What is the common mechanism underlying all acute coronary syndromes?
What is the management of a complex renal cyst?
Is pulsus paradoxus a sign of heart failure?
What is "thyroidization of the kidney" and in which condition does it occur?
What is intravesical BCG, and how does it work?
Which organisms cause post-operative prosthetic valve IE in the first few weeks after surgery? What is their significance?
What is the first-line treatment for central DI?
What does GOLDMARK stand for?
What is the treatment for Type I dyslipidemia?
What are the features of Sydenham chorea?
What are the ECG features of AVNRT?
What is the most common malignant cause of SIADH?
What are the two consequences of SAM in HCM?
What are the complications of acute pericarditis?
What is the mechanism of bisphosphonates in treating hypercalcemia?
What is the treatment for struvite stones?
What is the typical urinalysis pattern in ATN (intrinsic AKI)?
In which cardiac chamber does angiosarcoma most commonly arise?
What does uremic pericarditis indicate regarding dialysis?
What is TAVR and when is it used?
How does CIN (analgesic nephropathy) present, and how is it managed?
What is tumor lysis syndrome (TLS) and how does it cause hyperkalemia?
Which part of the male urethra is the widest and most dilatable, and which is the narrowest?
What is the core pathophysiologic defect in Type IV RTA?
What is the typical clinical presentation of cardiac angiosarcoma?
What is the plasma HCO₃⁻ level in Type IV RTA, and why is the acidosis mild?
What is the treatment of SIADH by severity?
How common is Sydenham chorea, which sex is it more common in, and what proportion progress to chronic RHD?
What is the accessory pathway in WPW syndrome called?
What type of LV hypertrophy does aortic regurgitation cause, and why?
How does CIN differ histologically from AIN?
What is the mechanism, trigger, and treatment of Minimal Change Disease (MCD)?
How is muscle-invasive bladder cancer treated?
What is the inheritance pattern of familial hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa)?
What causes DKA and what is its acid-base pattern?
Why does desmopressin have no vasopressor effect?
How do ACE inhibitors cause hyperkalemia?
Compare subacute IE and acute IE across six features.
Where does cortical scarring predominantly occur in chronic pyelonephritis?
What is the length of the female urethra, and what is its function?
What are the clinical features of ODS?
What is the mechanism of elevated JVP in right HF?
What is Wellens' Syndrome?
What is the Bosniak classification system?
What is the classic clinical presentation of struvite stones?
Which nephron segments are most vulnerable to ischemic injury in ATN, and why?
What haematological finding is common in chronic cor pulmonale and why?
List the skin manifestations of advanced CKD/uremia.
What is a pericardial effusion? What determines its hemodynamic consequences?
What is the CRAB mnemonic for multiple myeloma?
HCM is the most common cause of SCD in which population?
What is the length of the female urethra, and what is its function?
What is a clinical pearl about partially treated acute endocarditis?
What are the neurological manifestations of uremia?
What are the key ECG findings in cor pulmonale?
Describe erythema marginatum and its frequency.
What is the ECG triad of WPW in sinus rhythm?
What is the mechanism of Type IIa dyslipidemia?
What are the three phases of the clinical course of ischemic ATN?
What causes uric acid stones?
In which patient population does primary cardiac lymphoma typically occur?
Why is the urine pH low in Type IV RTA despite inadequate acid excretion?
What type of bladder cancer is squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), and what causes it?
What are the biopsy findings in MCD on LM, IF, and EM?
What is the maximum safe correction rate for chronic hyponatraemia?
What are the two capillary beds associated with each nephron?
How do ARBs cause hyperkalemia?
List the five distinct renal toxicities of NSAIDs.
What is the pathophysiology of aortic regurgitation?
Why does rate of accumulation matter more than volume in pericardial effusion?
How is multiple myeloma diagnosed?
List 5 major risk factors for sudden cardiac death in HCM.
What is lactic acidosis and what are Type A vs Type B causes?
Name the adjunct drugs used in central DI and their mechanisms.
What is xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis (XGP)?
What is the maximum safe rate of sodium correction in SIADH and what complication does over-correction cause?
What is the mechanism of ascites in right HF?
Does a normal first ECG exclude myocardial infarction?
What finding on ultrasound behind a simple cyst helps confirm its benign nature?
What are the two capillary beds associated with each nephron?
What are the key echocardiographic findings in cor pulmonale?
What is the significance of new Left Bundle Branch Block (LBBB) in the context of ACS?
What are the ECG findings in a large pericardial effusion?
List four risk factors that increase the danger of ODS during correction.
What is the jerky (bisferiens) carotid pulse in HCM?
What is the classic triad of allergic (drug-induced) acute interstitial nephritis (AIN)?
What is the normal serum magnesium range?
What is hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism, and what is its most common cause?
What is unusual about the glomerulus compared to typical capillary beds?
How do NSAIDs cause hyperkalemia?
Describe subcutaneous nodules and their diagnostic significance.
What is orthodromic AVRT?
What is the key difference between ADPKD and acquired cystic disease in terms of kidney size?
What is the mechanism of jaundice in right HF?
What is the mechanism by which NSAIDs cause renal ischemia?
What is the classic CT finding in xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis?
What is the first-line treatment for nephrogenic DI?
What are the two key risk factors for squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder?
How does uremia cause HAGMA and how does this differ from early CKD?
What is unusual about the glomerulus compared to typical capillary beds?
List the causes of aortic regurgitation due to LEAFLET disease.
What causes hypertriglyceridemia in CKD?
How do you distinguish MCD from FSGS on biopsy?
What features on imaging suggest a cardiac mass is malignant rather than benign?
What LDL levels are seen in heterozygous vs homozygous FH?
What clinical features should trigger suspicion of subacute IE in a patient with congenital or valvular heart disease?
Why are uric acid stones more common in hot, arid climates?
Describe the clinical presentation of acute IE.
What is renal papillary necrosis?
What is the chest X-ray finding in pericardial effusion?
Define renal plasma flow (RPF).
What urinalysis findings suggest AIN?
What is the treatment for xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis?
What is the electrolyte and hormonal pattern of CKD-MBD?
What causes the double apical impulse in HCM?
What are the clinical effects of hypomagnesemia?
Why do thiazide diuretics paradoxically reduce urine output in nephrogenic DI?
What is the gold standard investigation for confirming pulmonary hypertension?
Which drugs cause Type IV RTA by reducing aldosterone levels?
What is the management of primary malignant cardiac tumors?
What is bladder adenocarcinoma, and in what three settings does it occur?
Define renal plasma flow (RPF).
Which renal cystic disease carries the highest risk of renal cell carcinoma?
Why is CK-MB preferred over troponin for detecting re-infarction?
What is the osmolar gap and what does an elevated value indicate?
Where does spironolactone act, and what is its mechanism?
What is the treatment for acute symptomatic hyponatraemia (seizure, coma)?
What other rare systemic manifestations can occur in ARF?
Name three conditions that cause hyperuricemia and increase uric acid stone risk.
What cardiovascular complication can occur in patients with homozygous FH?
What is antidromic AVRT?
List the causes of aortic regurgitation due to AORTIC ROOT DILATION.
What does FSGS stand for, and what is the prognosis by subtype?
What is the ABCDE mnemonic for CXR findings in HF?
What is the mechanism of Type III dyslipidemia?
Define glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
Which drugs cause Type IV RTA by aldosterone resistance (not by reducing aldosterone levels)?
Define glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
What is the difference between spironolactone and eplerenone?
Why are the renal papillae particularly vulnerable to ischemia?
What conditions are associated with bicuspid aortic valve?
How does renal cell carcinoma spread to the heart?
What is Schistosoma haematobium, and where is it endemic?
What is the gold standard investigation for pericardial effusion?
How does chronic diarrhea promote uric acid stone formation?
What is the biphasic effect of magnesium on PTH secretion?
What type of murmur does HCM produce? Where is it best heard?
List common drugs that cause AIN.
What does a reduced DLCO on pulmonary function testing suggest in the context of cor pulmonale?
Compare methanol vs ethylene glycol poisoning.
Describe the full cascade of CKD-MBD.
What dietary modification applies to all DI patients?
Why is WPW + AF a life-threatening combination?
What type of fluid are pleural effusions in CHF, and what is the mechanism?
What is a renal abscess and how does it differ from a perinephric abscess?
How does post-operative endocarditis present? What is the typical organism in the first weeks after surgery?
What is the role of ESR and CRP in ARF?
What does MONABCH stand for in ACS management?
What are the secondary causes of FSGS?
What gene mutation causes ARPKD, and what other organ is typically affected?
What is the treatment for hypovolaemic hyponatraemia?
What is the most common cause of nephrotic syndrome in non-diabetic adults, and what is its primary antibody?
What are the normal values for RPF, GFR, and filtration fraction?
What is the treatment for euvolaemic hyponatraemia (SIADH)?
What are the causes of pericardial effusion?
What lipids are elevated in Type III dyslipidemia?
Why is Digoxin NOT used in ACS management?
What is the classic clinical vignette for Type IV RTA?
What percentage of throat cultures are positive in suspected ARF, and why?
What is the ROMK channel, and how does magnesium affect it?
Describe the life cycle of Schistosoma haematobium from infection to bladder cancer.
What are the ECG criteria for HCM on echocardiography (3 main criteria)?
What is the most important treatment for uric acid stones, and why?
What is the classic triad pointing to IE in a post-operative patient?
What is the most important step in managing AIN?
How is hypernatremia from DI corrected, and what is the safety limit?
Does cardiac tamponade cause acute pulmonary edema?
Describe the murmur of aortic regurgitation.
What is the most common cardiac structure involved in metastatic disease?
What drugs must NEVER be given in WPW with AF, and why?
Why does a patient with ADPKD have a family history of sudden death?
What role does FGF-23 play in CKD-MBD?
What are the four classic causes of renal papillary necrosis? Give the mnemonic.
What are the normal values for RPF, GFR, and filtration fraction?
How is a renal or perinephric abscess diagnosed and treated?
What is the cornerstone of cor pulmonale management?
What is propylene glycol poisoning and how does it differ from methanol and ethylene glycol?
Does spironolactone act on the proximal tubule?
Why must hypernatremia be corrected slowly?
What is the mechanism of AIN at the cellular level?
What is the classic symptom of Schistosoma haematobium infection?